Spatial-numerical consistency impacts on preschoolers' numerical representation: Children can count on both peripersonal and personal space

Although the existence of an association between numbers and space has been largely documented in educated adults, the origin of this association still remains debated. Recent evidence suggests that associations between numbers and space might originate during the preschool years from the repeated action of counting in peripersonal space. However, it is also possible that preschoolers may additionally acquire directional preferences by counting on their own body, specifically on their fingers. To address this hypothesis, the present study explores the presence of early directional indexes in processing numerical information in both peripersonal and personal space in a sample of 90 preschoolers. We identified children who consistently exhibited a counting directional bias and generalized it to their processing of numbers in space. Moreover, given the tight connection between counting routine and numerical knowledge, we investigated the relation between these indexes and numerical achievement, evaluated by means of various tasks. Results indicate that distinct spatial-numerical associations, in both peripersonal and personal space, coexist from an early age and can be used flexibly. However, regardless of its directionality, the presence of a consistent spatial-numerical association appears to be related to numerical comprehension.