Updating the temporal need-threat model of ostracism: challenges and future directions

The temporal need-threat model of ostracism, developed by Kipling Williams, provides a comprehensive framework for understanding how ostracism–being ignored and excluded–impacts fundamental human needs over time. This manuscript critically examines the temporal dimension of this model by addressing three key questions. First, does chronic ostracism inevitably lead to resignation? This section explores the inevitability of resignation outcomes and the potential role of moderating factors. Second, do individual differences influence reactions across the model’s three stages? This section investigates how personal traits may shape responses to ostracism, from reflexive reactions to long-term resignation. Third, how can the model be adapted to capture the specific features of digital ostracism? This section discusses the challenges and opportunities involved in applying the model to technology-mediated interactions. Ultimately, the manuscript advances theoretical and empirical understanding by refining the temporal structure of the model to account for both in-person and digital forms of ostracism.