Impact of land use intensification and local features on plants and pollinators in Sub-Saharan smallholder farms

Sub-Saharan African crop production largely relies on smallholder farms, located both in urban and agricultural landscapes. In this context, the investigation of plant and pollinator diversity and their interactions is of primary importance since both these factors are threatened by land use intensification and the consequent loss of natural habitats. In this study, we evaluated for the first time how plant and pollinator insect assemblages and interactions in Sub-Saharan farming conditions are shaped by land use intensification. To do that, we complemented biodiversity field surveys in Northern Tanzania with a modern DNA metabarcoding approach to characterize the foraged plants and thus built networks describing plant-pollinator interactions at the individual insect level. Moreover, we coupled this information with quantitative traits of landscape composition and floral availability surrounding each farm. We found that pollinator richness decreased with increasing impervious and agricultural cover in the landscape, whereas the flower density at each farm correlated with pollinator richness. The intensification of agricultural land use and urbanization correlated with a higher foraging niche overlap among pollinators due to convergence of individuals’ flower visiting strategies. Furthermore, within farms, the higher availability of floral resources drove lower niche overlap among individuals, while a greater flower visitors abundance shaped higher generalization at the networks level (H2′), possibly due to increased competition. These mechanistic understandings leading to individuals’ foraging niche overlap and generalism at the network level, could imply stability of interactions and of the pollination ecosystem service. Our integrative survey proved that plant-pollinator systems are largely affected by land use intensification and by local factors in smallholder farms of Sub-Saharan Africa. Thus, policies promoting nature-based solutions, among which the introduction of more pollinator-friendly practices by smallholder farmers, could be effective in mitigating the intensification of both urban and rural landscapes in this region, as well as in similar Sub-Saharan contexts.