Advancements in nanosensors for detecting pathogens in healthcare environments

Hospitals serve as critical environments for the management of diverse medical conditions, ranging from routine illnesses to life-threatening emergencies. However, alongside providing healthcare services, hospitals represent reservoirs for the transmission of microbial pathogens. Understanding the distribution and dynamics of pathogens within hospital settings is crucial for effective infection control and prevention strategies. Concurrently, the integration of cutting-edge technologies for the early detection and monitoring of target bacteria stands as a pivotal strategy in this battle against nosocomial infections. This critical review aims to provide a systematic insight into the main threatening microbes in hospitals and the detection of pathogens in different environments, ranging from intensive care units to general wards, including hospital entrances, bathrooms, high-touch surfaces, patient bed rails, medical equipment, and floors, which are often contaminated. We discuss recent scientific and technological advances in pathogen detection by exploring innovative methods that leverage nanotechnology to improve biosensing effectiveness and selectivity. This review is divided into sections focusing on various types of hospital environments, classes of mostly represented pathogens and kinds of available nanobiosensors. We include two comprehensive tables summarizing bacterial contamination in hospital wards and the materials and substrates associated with the nanobiosensors that have been developed. Eventually, we highlight the open challenges and perspectives in nanotechnology-based healthcare-environment monitoring and remediation as a promising solution to counteract pathogen emergence and spread.