Dispersal and settlement dynamics of wolves in a lowland ecological corridor in northern Italy: Effects of resource availability and human disturbance

A dispersal strategy punctuated by breeding events along corridors is the most effective for sustaining recolonization and viable metapopulations of large mammals. Consequently, functional ecological corridors not only have to offer dispersal routes, but they must also provide suitable breeding conditions. This study investigated wolf spatio-temporal behavior within the Ticino Natural Park, an ecological corridor crossing a highly humanmodified area in northern Italy. Wolves were systematically monitored from 2017 to 2023. Kernel and resource selection analyses showed that core areas characterized by high naturalness attracted transient individuals due to their suitability for potential settlement. Wolves selected core areas with low anthropogenic disturbance, high shrub cover, and prey abundance, aligning with behaviors observed in resident wolves. Despite the availability of favorable habitat conditions and the nocturnal behavior adopted by wolves, anthropogenic disturbance, including culling activities, human-induced mortality, and traffic roads, have been the primary limitation to pack establishment in the park so far. However, the observations of a stable wolf pair in the most recent core area in 2023-2024 and the consequent implementation of conservation management actions by park managers have permitted the very recent settlement of the first wolf pack within the protected area. This event will reinforce the ecological connectivity between Apennines and Alps wolf sub-populations and between the Italian and European populations. This study underscores the importance of actively protecting natural corridors able to support both dispersal and settlement to ensure recolonization of formerly occupied areas and the longterm large carnivore conservation in a landscape of coexistence.