Circular Economy and the Fate of Lithium Batteries: Second Life and Recycling

There is a growing demand of electrochemical energy storage, driven by automotive and stationary requirements. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are expected to dominate the market from the current 0.5TWh to about 2.5TWh in 2030. This will lead to great difficulties in the procurement of critical raw materials and in the management of end-of-life systems. From a circular economy perspective, it is necessary to identify reuse and recycling strategies that can make the demand fully sustainable. However, second life and recycling are not mutually excluding, while the final fate of the battery, or at least of its noblest components, should be recycling instead of disposal. In this context, to allow new strategies such as direct recycling of cathode powders, an accurate redesign of the battery system, from the single cell to the modules, which allows ease of separation of the compartments, should be considered. The correct evaluation of the best strategies cannot be separated from an accurate and transparent life cycle assessment (LCA), which would take into account both economic and environmental aspects. Herein, the most advanced recycling methods are analyzed and the issues underlying the efficient reuse and recycling of battery packs from electric vehicles are critically discussed.