The origins of massive black holes

Massive black holes (MBHs) inhabit galactic centres, and power luminous quasars and active galactic nuclei, shaping their cosmic environment with the energy they produce. The origins of MBHs remain a mystery, and the recent detection by LIGO/Virgo of a black hole of almost 150 solar masses has revitalized the questions of whether there is a continuum between ‘stellar’ and ‘massive’ black holes, and what the seeds of MBHs are. Seeds could have formed in the first galaxies or could be related to the collapse of horizon-sized regions in the early Universe. Understanding the origins of MBHs straddles fundamental physics, cosmology and astrophysics, and bridges the fields of gravitational-wave physics and traditional astronomy. With several existing and upcoming facilities in the next 10–15 years, we foresee the possibility of discovering the avenues of formation of MBHs. This Review links three main topics: the channels of black hole seed formation, the journey from seeds to MBHs, and the diagnostics on the origins of MBHs. We highlight and critically discuss current unsolved problems, touching on recent developments.