In the last decade lots of research efforts were put in the field of immunotherapy, a relatively new class of treatments that boost the body’s natural defenses to fight against cancer. In medical research, despite growing evidence that sex (i.e., differences between men and women at biological level) might be a disease treatment modifier, sex-based differences in the presentation, progression, adverse events as well as in the prophylactic or therapeutic treatment of diseases were rarely analyzed and reported. Only in 2018, Conforti and colleagues found, for the first time, that considering patients affected by several types of advanced cancers, and treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors as monotherapy or as a combination therapy, males derive larger effect on OS then females do. The overall aim of this doctoral thesis was to extend previous (limited) knowledge on sex-based differences in cancer immunotherapy efficacy and to further explore mechanisms at molecular level that regulate anticancer immune response in men and women. First, we investigated whether, and confirmed that, women with advanced lung cancer derive larger benefit than men from the combination of chemotherapy to an anti-PD-1/PD-L1. We found also an interaction between patients’ sex and the efficacy in OS of two therapeutic strategies (anti-PD-1/PD-L1 alone or in combination with chemotherapy compared to standard chemotherapy) with opposite direction of the effect in men and women: men derive larger benefit than women with an anti-PD-1 treatment alone, while women have better survival with anti-PD-1/PD-L1 plus chemotherapy. Then we deeply studied the sex-based dimorphism of the response to lung cancer immunotherapy, conjecturing that the heterogeneity of response to different immunotherapeutic strategies might be due to differences in the molecular mechanisms that drive anticancer immune response in men and women. We observed a less efficient tumor recognition and infiltration by immune system in men compared to women. In particular, in men, we found a lower abundance of a number of immune cell types in the tumor microenvironment (TME), a significantly higher T-cell exclusion score, a smaller T-cell receptors repertoire diversity and a lower amount of ubiquitous expanded T-cell receptors. We found that such poorer immune infiltration of tumors in men may depend on a less efficient tumor neoantigens presentation to the immune-system, due to lower expression levels of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I and II molecules, higher frequency of HLA type I loss of heterozygosity and/or alterations in other component of the antigen presentation machinery. We also showed that, among the molecular pathways and biological processes most significantly enriched in the TME of women, there were many directly related to the anticancer immune response. Contrary, none of the gene sets found significantly enriched in tumors arising in men were directly related to anticancer immune responses. Moreover, we provided a clear example of the potential clinical implications of our findings, showing significant differences in the association between tumor mutational burden and survival benefit observed in men and women treated with anti-PD-1/PD-L1 antibodies. We implemented several statistical methods to answer the different questions depending on the aim of each study. We used meta-analyses to combine results from several studies and to produce estimates of the overall sex-effect of interest. We used cox proportional hazard regression model to analyze survival data and, as a mean to investigate departures from linearity, restricted cubic splines were applied to model the relationship between continuous covariates and the survival outcome of interest. Several bioinformatic tools were used to process the data. Moreover, we implemented the Gene Set Enrichment Analysis methodology in the statistical software SAS with an extension to meta-analysis.

Nella ricerca medica, nonostante la crescente evidenza che il sesso potrebbe essere un modificatore dell’effetto dei trattamenti, differenze basate sul sesso nella presentazione, progressione, eventi avversi e nel trattamento delle malattie sono raramente analizzate. Solo nel 2018, Conforti e colleghi hanno evidenziato per la prima volta che considerando pazienti affetti da diversi tipi di tumori in stadio avanzato e trattati con gli inibitori dei checkpoint immunitari, in monoterapia o come terapia combinata, gli uomini ottenevano un beneficio maggiore in sopravvivenza rispetto alle donne. L'obiettivo generale di questa tesi di dottorato è quello di estendere le conoscenze precedenti (limitate) delle differenze basate sul sesso nell'efficacia dell'immunoterapia e di esplorare i meccanismi a livello molecolare che regolano la risposta immunitaria antitumorale negli uomini e nelle donne. In primo luogo abbiamo studiato se, e confermato che, le donne con carcinoma polmonare avanzato traggono maggiore beneficio rispetto agli uomini dalla combinazione della chemioterapia con un anti-PD-1/PD-L1. Abbiamo anche trovato un'interazione tra il sesso e l'efficacia in termini di sopravvivenza di due strategie terapeutiche (anti-PD-1/PD-L1 da soli o in combinazione con la chemioterapia rispetto alla chemioterapia standard) con direzione opposta dell'effetto negli uomini e nelle donne: gli uomini traggono maggior beneficio con un trattamento anti-PD-1 da solo, mentre le donne hanno una migliore sopravvivenza con un anti-PD-1/PD-L1 più chemioterapia. Successivamente abbiamo studiato il dimorfismo di genere della risposta all'immunoterapia contro il tumore del polmone, ipotizzando che l'eterogeneità della risposta a diverse strategie immunoterapeutiche fosse dovuta a differenze nei meccanismi molecolari che guidano la risposta immunitaria antitumorale negli uomini e nelle donne. Abbiamo osservato un minor riconoscimento del tumore e una minore infiltrazione del sistema immunitario negli uomini rispetto alle donne. In particolare, negli uomini, abbiamo riscontrato una minore abbondanza di cellule immunitarie nel microambiente tumorale, un più alto T-cell exclusion score, una minore diversità di repertorio dei recettori delle cellule T e una minore quantità di ubiquitous TCR. Un'infiltrazione immunitaria così povera dei tumori negli uomini potrebbe dipendere da una presentazione dei neoantigeni tumorali meno efficiente al sistema immunitario, a causa dei livelli di espressione più bassi delle molecole di antigene leucocitario umano (HLA) di classe I e II, maggiore frequenza di I perdita di eterozigosi per HLA di tipo I e/o alterazioni in altre componenti del meccanismo di presentazione dell'antigene. Abbiamo anche dimostrato che, tra le vie molecolari e i processi biologici più arricchiti nel microambiente tumorale femminile, ve ne erano molti direttamente correlati alla risposta immunitaria antitumorale. Al contrario, nessuno dei gene sets trovati significativamente arricchiti nei tumori maschili era direttamente correlato alla risposta immunitaria antitumorale. Inoltre, abbiamo fornito un chiaro esempio delle potenziali implicazioni cliniche dei nostri risultati, mostrando differenze significative nell'associazione tra carico mutazionale del tumore e il beneficio di sopravvivenza osservato in uomini e donne trattati con anticorpi anti-PD-1/PD-L1. Abbiamo implementato diversi metodi statistici: le meta-analisi per combinare i risultati di diversi studi; il modello di Cox per analizzare i dati di sopravvivenza; le spline cubiche ristrette come mezzo per indagare gli scostamenti dalla linearità e per modellare la relazione tra covariate continue e gli outcome di sopravvivenza di interesse. Inoltre, abbiamo implementato la metodologia Gene Set Enrichment Analysis nel software statistico SAS con un’estensione alle meta-analisi.

(2021). Sex-based differences in cancer immunotherapy efficacy. (Tesi di dottorato, Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, 2021).

Sex-based differences in cancer immunotherapy efficacy

PAGAN, ELEONORA
2021

Abstract

In the last decade lots of research efforts were put in the field of immunotherapy, a relatively new class of treatments that boost the body’s natural defenses to fight against cancer. In medical research, despite growing evidence that sex (i.e., differences between men and women at biological level) might be a disease treatment modifier, sex-based differences in the presentation, progression, adverse events as well as in the prophylactic or therapeutic treatment of diseases were rarely analyzed and reported. Only in 2018, Conforti and colleagues found, for the first time, that considering patients affected by several types of advanced cancers, and treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors as monotherapy or as a combination therapy, males derive larger effect on OS then females do. The overall aim of this doctoral thesis was to extend previous (limited) knowledge on sex-based differences in cancer immunotherapy efficacy and to further explore mechanisms at molecular level that regulate anticancer immune response in men and women. First, we investigated whether, and confirmed that, women with advanced lung cancer derive larger benefit than men from the combination of chemotherapy to an anti-PD-1/PD-L1. We found also an interaction between patients’ sex and the efficacy in OS of two therapeutic strategies (anti-PD-1/PD-L1 alone or in combination with chemotherapy compared to standard chemotherapy) with opposite direction of the effect in men and women: men derive larger benefit than women with an anti-PD-1 treatment alone, while women have better survival with anti-PD-1/PD-L1 plus chemotherapy. Then we deeply studied the sex-based dimorphism of the response to lung cancer immunotherapy, conjecturing that the heterogeneity of response to different immunotherapeutic strategies might be due to differences in the molecular mechanisms that drive anticancer immune response in men and women. We observed a less efficient tumor recognition and infiltration by immune system in men compared to women. In particular, in men, we found a lower abundance of a number of immune cell types in the tumor microenvironment (TME), a significantly higher T-cell exclusion score, a smaller T-cell receptors repertoire diversity and a lower amount of ubiquitous expanded T-cell receptors. We found that such poorer immune infiltration of tumors in men may depend on a less efficient tumor neoantigens presentation to the immune-system, due to lower expression levels of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I and II molecules, higher frequency of HLA type I loss of heterozygosity and/or alterations in other component of the antigen presentation machinery. We also showed that, among the molecular pathways and biological processes most significantly enriched in the TME of women, there were many directly related to the anticancer immune response. Contrary, none of the gene sets found significantly enriched in tumors arising in men were directly related to anticancer immune responses. Moreover, we provided a clear example of the potential clinical implications of our findings, showing significant differences in the association between tumor mutational burden and survival benefit observed in men and women treated with anti-PD-1/PD-L1 antibodies. We implemented several statistical methods to answer the different questions depending on the aim of each study. We used meta-analyses to combine results from several studies and to produce estimates of the overall sex-effect of interest. We used cox proportional hazard regression model to analyze survival data and, as a mean to investigate departures from linearity, restricted cubic splines were applied to model the relationship between continuous covariates and the survival outcome of interest. Several bioinformatic tools were used to process the data. Moreover, we implemented the Gene Set Enrichment Analysis methodology in the statistical software SAS with an extension to meta-analysis.
BAGNARDI, VINCENZO
Differenze di genere; Immunoterapia; Tumore del polmone; Risposta immunitaria; Meta-analisi
Sex differences; Immunotherapy; Lung cancer; Immune response; Meta-analisi
MED/01 - STATISTICA MEDICA
English
24-feb-2021
SANITA' PUBBLICA
33
2019/2020
open
(2021). Sex-based differences in cancer immunotherapy efficacy. (Tesi di dottorato, Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, 2021).
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Utilizza questo identificativo per citare o creare un link a questo documento: https://hdl.handle.net/10281/306599
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