Rubber vulcanization is the main industrial method for crosslinking polymer chains in rubber nanocomposites (NCs), forming a three-dimensional network that enhances mechanical performance. Sulfur is typically used to create mono- and polysulfide bridges, together with curing agents, i.e. accelerators, activators, and co-activators, that improve efficiency and reaction rate. Among these, ZnO is the most common activator, but its low affinity for rubber requires large amounts for homogeneous dispersion, leading to environmental issues due to zinc leaching during manufacturing and service life. Therefore, reducing or replacing Zn-based activators with environmentally friendly alternatives is an important challenge for key sectors, such as tire industry.In this context, the aim of the PhD project is to design innovative activators for the rubber vulcanization process, that can replace ZnO and eliminate zinc leaching while maintaining high curing efficiency. Iron-based materials have been proposed as potential activators and investigated in three different forms: (i) iron centers (Fe@SiO₂) and (ii) ferrihydrite (Fh@SiO₂) immobilized on the surface of silica (SiO2) nanoparticles (NPs), serving both as reinforcing fillers and curing activators; (iii) Fe(III) complexes, explored as non-supported curing activators and designed according to the principles of non-toxicity, low cost, ease of synthesis, and good dispersion within rubber.Fe@SiO2 was prepared through a double-step functionalization, in which SiO2 NPs were pre-functionalized with a surface ligand and then reacted with an iron precursor. The effects of iron loading, iron precursor and ligand group (amine or carboxylate) on the structure of the iron centers were thoroughly investigated, revealing the co-presence of isolated and coupled Fe(III) species, possibly related to the formation of polynuclear oxo-iron clusters. Nevertheless, both species proved to be active, as the vulcanization efficiency of isoprene rubber (IR) depended solely on the total amount of iron, while curing kinetics was found to be tuneable by changing the ligand. Moreover, Fe@SiO2 synthesis conditions were optimized by replacing organic solvents with water, demonstrating its safe and sustainable scalability, while the use of a model approach combined with surface analyses, confirmed the stability of Fe(III) sites and suggested direct Fe - sulfur interactions during curing. Additionally, metal-anchored functionalized SiO2 NPs, inspired by Fe@SiO2, were tested as fillers for self-healing elastomers, exploiting the ability of metal ions to coordinate ligands covalently bonded to NPs and polymer chains and act as dynamic crosslinkers, with promising results, unlocking an alternative application for these materials.Fh was prepared as a nanometric, disordered iron oxy-hydroxide, by precipitation in aqueous medium. It proved to be highly active as a vulcanization activator for IR NCs and displayed enhanced reactivity in its supported form Fh@SiO2, due to increased dispersion within the matrix. Fe(III) complexes, including carboxylates, thiosalicylate and acetylacetonate were prepared and thoroughly characterized, assessing their physicochemical and structural properties. When tested as curing activators for IR model compounds and tire tread-like formulations (TT), they displayed different vulcanization efficiencies, relatable to the ligands properties. Thermal ageing tests on the compounds showed that it is possible to produce stable TT NCs by correctly choosing the ligand in Fe complexes, making them suitable for this type of formulation.Concluding, highly reactive iron-based curing activators were developed, from supported iron centres (Fe@SiO2), to supported nanometric iron hydroxides (Fh@SiO2), to iron complexes with organic ligands, providing high crosslinking efficiencies that produced strong rubber NCs, highlighting their potential as candidates to replace ZnO in the vulcanization process
La vulcanizzazione è il principale processo industriale per reticolare le catene polimeriche nei nanocompositi (NC) a base di gomma, in quanto porta alla formazione di un network che ne migliora le proprietà meccaniche. Comunemente si utilizza zolfo (S8) per formare ponti mono- e polisolfurici, insieme ad acceleranti, attivatori e co-attivatori che aumentano efficienza e velocità di reazione. Tra questi, l’ossido di zinco (ZnO) è l’attivatore più diffuso, ma la sua bassa affinità con la gomma richiede elevate quantità per garantire una buona dispersione, causando problemi ambientali dovuti al rilascio di zinco durante produzione e utilizzo. Ridurre o sostituire gli attivatori a base di zinco con alternative più sostenibili è quindi una sfida rilevante per settori come quello degli pneumatici. In questo contesto, l’obiettivo del progetto di dottorato è progettare attivatori innovativi in grado di sostituire ZnO, mantenendo elevata efficienza di reticolazione. Materiali a base di ferro sono stati studiati in tre forme: (i) centri di ferro (Fe@SiO₂) e (ii) ferridrite (Fh@SiO₂) immobilizzati su nanoparticelle (NP) di silice, con funzione sia di cariche rinforzanti sia di attivatori; (iii) complessi di Fe(III), non supportati, progettati secondo principi di non tossicità, basso costo, facilità di sintesi e buona dispersione nella gomma. Fe@SiO₂ è stato preparato tramite doppia funzionalizzazione, in quanto le NP di SiO₂ sono state funzionalizzate con un ligando e successivamente fatte reagire con un precursore di ferro. Sono stati studiati gli effetti del contenuto di ferro, del precursore e del ligando (amminico o carbossilato) sulla struttura dei centri metallici, evidenziando specie Fe(III) isolate e accoppiate, associate alla formazione di domini di osso-idrossidi di ferro. Entrambe le specie sono risultate attive, poiché l’efficienza di vulcanizzazione in gomma isoprene (IR) dipendeva dalla quantità totale di ferro, mentre la cinetica è stata modulabile al variare del ligando. Le condizioni di sintesi sono state rese più sostenibili sostituendo i solventi organici con acqua. Sfruttando la vulcanizzazione di un composto modello, e combinandola con analisi superficiali, è stato possibile confermare la stabilità dei siti Fe(III) ed individuare interazioni dirette Fe–zolfo durante la reticolazione. NP di SiO₂ decorate con centri metallici, ispirate a Fe@SiO₂, sono state testate anche come filler per elastomeri autoriparanti, sfruttando la capacità degli ioni metallici di coordinare gruppi legati a NP e catene polimeriche e dunque di agire come reticolanti dinamici. I risultati sono promettenti e aprono ad una nuova applicazione per questi materiali. La ferridrite è stata sintetizzata come ossi-idrossido nanometrico tramite precipitazione acquosa. Ha mostrato elevata attività come attivatore di vulcanizzazione per NC a base di IR, con reattività ulteriormente migliorata nella forma supportata Fh@SiO₂ grazie alla migliore dispersione nella matrice. Sono stati inoltre preparati e caratterizzati diversi complessi di Fe(III) (carbossilati, tiosalicilato, acetilacetonato). Quando testati come attivatori per mescole modello di IR e formulazioni battistrada (TT), hanno mostrato efficienze variabili, correlate alle caratteristiche dei ligandi. Prove di invecchiamento termico hanno dimostrato la possibilità di ottenere mescole TT stabili scegliendo opportunamente il ligando, confermandone l’idoneità per applicazioni di interesse industriale. In conclusione, sono stati sviluppati attivatori di reticolazione a base di ferro altamente reattivi: dai centri metallici supportati (Fe@SiO₂), agli ossi-idrossidi nanometrici (Fh@SiO₂), fino a complessi di Fe(III), ottenendo elevate efficienze di reticolazione e NC ad alte prestazioni. Ciò evidenzia il loro potenziale come alternative sostenibili allo ZnO nel processo di vulcanizzazione.
Alberti, L (2026). Iron-based curing activators for rubber vulcanization process. (Tesi di dottorato, , 2026).
Iron-based curing activators for rubber vulcanization process
ALBERTI, LORENZO
2026
Abstract
Rubber vulcanization is the main industrial method for crosslinking polymer chains in rubber nanocomposites (NCs), forming a three-dimensional network that enhances mechanical performance. Sulfur is typically used to create mono- and polysulfide bridges, together with curing agents, i.e. accelerators, activators, and co-activators, that improve efficiency and reaction rate. Among these, ZnO is the most common activator, but its low affinity for rubber requires large amounts for homogeneous dispersion, leading to environmental issues due to zinc leaching during manufacturing and service life. Therefore, reducing or replacing Zn-based activators with environmentally friendly alternatives is an important challenge for key sectors, such as tire industry.In this context, the aim of the PhD project is to design innovative activators for the rubber vulcanization process, that can replace ZnO and eliminate zinc leaching while maintaining high curing efficiency. Iron-based materials have been proposed as potential activators and investigated in three different forms: (i) iron centers (Fe@SiO₂) and (ii) ferrihydrite (Fh@SiO₂) immobilized on the surface of silica (SiO2) nanoparticles (NPs), serving both as reinforcing fillers and curing activators; (iii) Fe(III) complexes, explored as non-supported curing activators and designed according to the principles of non-toxicity, low cost, ease of synthesis, and good dispersion within rubber.Fe@SiO2 was prepared through a double-step functionalization, in which SiO2 NPs were pre-functionalized with a surface ligand and then reacted with an iron precursor. The effects of iron loading, iron precursor and ligand group (amine or carboxylate) on the structure of the iron centers were thoroughly investigated, revealing the co-presence of isolated and coupled Fe(III) species, possibly related to the formation of polynuclear oxo-iron clusters. Nevertheless, both species proved to be active, as the vulcanization efficiency of isoprene rubber (IR) depended solely on the total amount of iron, while curing kinetics was found to be tuneable by changing the ligand. Moreover, Fe@SiO2 synthesis conditions were optimized by replacing organic solvents with water, demonstrating its safe and sustainable scalability, while the use of a model approach combined with surface analyses, confirmed the stability of Fe(III) sites and suggested direct Fe - sulfur interactions during curing. Additionally, metal-anchored functionalized SiO2 NPs, inspired by Fe@SiO2, were tested as fillers for self-healing elastomers, exploiting the ability of metal ions to coordinate ligands covalently bonded to NPs and polymer chains and act as dynamic crosslinkers, with promising results, unlocking an alternative application for these materials.Fh was prepared as a nanometric, disordered iron oxy-hydroxide, by precipitation in aqueous medium. It proved to be highly active as a vulcanization activator for IR NCs and displayed enhanced reactivity in its supported form Fh@SiO2, due to increased dispersion within the matrix. Fe(III) complexes, including carboxylates, thiosalicylate and acetylacetonate were prepared and thoroughly characterized, assessing their physicochemical and structural properties. When tested as curing activators for IR model compounds and tire tread-like formulations (TT), they displayed different vulcanization efficiencies, relatable to the ligands properties. Thermal ageing tests on the compounds showed that it is possible to produce stable TT NCs by correctly choosing the ligand in Fe complexes, making them suitable for this type of formulation.Concluding, highly reactive iron-based curing activators were developed, from supported iron centres (Fe@SiO2), to supported nanometric iron hydroxides (Fh@SiO2), to iron complexes with organic ligands, providing high crosslinking efficiencies that produced strong rubber NCs, highlighting their potential as candidates to replace ZnO in the vulcanization process| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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phd_unimib_896627.pdf
embargo fino al 19/02/2029
Descrizione: Tesi di Alberti Lorenzo - 896627
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Doctoral thesis
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