Observational evidence has confirmed the presence of a massive black hole at the centre of most galaxies. Massive black holes (MBH) are compact objects with mass between 10^6 and 10^10 Msun. During their evolution, galaxies can merge and their respective black holes can bond in a massive black hole binary (MBHB). The stages through which the binary can efficiently shrink and coalesce are currently under debate. As a result of the interaction with the gaseous environment in which they reside, MBHBs are expected to produce distinctive observational electromagnetic (EM) signatures. Although known candidates at sub-parsec separation have been proposed based on their EM emission, convincing evidence that these sources are indeed MBHBs is still missing. MBHBs are among the main targets of current and future gravitational wave (GW) experiments. The upcoming space-based Laser Interferometer Space Antenna will probe the milli-hertz GW band, observing the late inspiral and merger of MBHBs with masses between 10^4-10^7 Msun, across the Universe. At lower frequencies, in the nano-hertz regime, Pulsar Timing Array experiments can detect GWs from more massive MBHBs at milli-parsec separations. Although GWs are essential for a definitive detection of MBHBs, identifying unique EM counterparts is crucial for constraining the properties of these systems, opening the era of low-frequency multi-messenger astronomy. In this thesis, we investigate the dynamics, the spectral and time variability of accreting MBHBs at milli-parsec separations, focusing on the interplay between the binary and its gaseous circumbinary disc. We present the first synthetic spectral energy distributions (SEDs) and Light Curves (LCs) from 3D hyper-Lagrangian hydrodynamical simulations of MBHBs surrounded by circumbinary discs. Using the 3D code GIZMO in its meshless finite mass version, we simulate live milli-parsec binaries with total mass 10^6 Msun, exploring different mass ratios and eccentricities. We let these binaries evolve within a circumbinary disc described by an adiabatic equation of state, including the disc self-gravity and assuming gas cooling to occur via black body radiation. We find significant variability of the SED, especially at high energies, which translates into LCs displaying distinctive modulations of a factor of ~ 2 in the optical and of ~ 10 in UV and X-rays. We analyse in detail the flux variability in the optical bands that will be probed by the Vera Rubin Observatory (VRO). When considering the VRO flux limit and nominal survey duration, we find that unequal-mass and/or eccentric binaries can be singled out up to z ~ 0.5. A critical aspect that has often been neglected in previous studies is the role of radiation pressure in the hydrodynamics evolution of the circumbinary disc. At sub-parsec scales, discs around MBHBs are likely dominated by radiation pressure; therefore, including this additional term in the hydrodynamics equations is very important in order to advance the theoretical modelling of the MBHB-disc interaction. We implement the contribution of the radiation pressure in our 3D numerical simulations, in order to evaluate its impact on both the evolution of the binary and its circumbinary disc and the EM signatures. We find that the radiation pressure significantly alters the vertical and thermal structure of the disc, resulting in a geometrically thinner and colder configuration. This leads to a reduced accretion rate onto the binary and suppresses cavity eccentricity growth and precession in circular equal mass binaries. The emission from the mini-discs shifts from the optical towards UV frequencies and with a peak luminosity orders of magnitude higher. Temporal variability is affected as well: near UV and soft-X ray fluxes are higher and more variable. Crucially, radiation pressure suppresses the characteristic "lump" formation in equal-mass circular systems.

Osservazioni indicano la presenza di un buco nero massiccio (MBH) al centro della maggior parte delle galassie, con massa compresa tra 10^6 e 10^10 masse solari (Msun). Durante la loro evoluzione, le galassie possono fondersi e i rispettivi buchi neri possono formare un sistema binario (MBHB). A seguito dell’interazione con l’ambiente gassoso in cui risiedono, i MBHB sono previsti generare distinti segnali osservativi elettromagnetici (EM). Sebbene siano stati proposti alcuni candidati con separazione su scala dei sub-parsec, prove convincenti che questi oggetti siano effettivamente MBHB mancano ancora. I MBHB sono tra i principali target degli esperimenti attuali e futuri sulle onde gravitazionali (GW). L’interferometro spaziale Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) esplorerà la banda delle GW in milli-hertz, tracciando l’inspiral e la fusione di binarie con masse tra 10^4 e 10^7 Msun. A frequenze più basse, gli esperimenti di Pulsar Timing Array possono rilevare GW da MBHB più massicci a separazioni di milli-parsec. Sebbene le GW rappresentino il metodo più robusto per rilevare MBHB, l’identificazione di controparti EM è cruciale per caratterizzare le loro proprietà. In questa tesi studiamo la dinamica, lo spettro e la variabilità temporale di MBHB accrescenti a separazioni milli-parsec, con particolare attenzione all’interazione con il disco circumbinario. Presentiamo le prime distribuzioni spettrali di energia (SED) e curve di luce (LC) ottenute da simulazioni idrodinamiche 3D iper-Lagrangiane di binarie immerse in dischi gassosi. Utilizzando il codice 3D GIZMO, modelliamo binarie “live” a separazioni milli-parsec con massa totale di 10^6 Msun, esplorando diversi rapporti di massa ed eccentricità. Lasciamo evolvere queste binarie all’interno di un disco descritto da un’equazione di stato adiabatica, includendo l’auto-gravità del disco e assumendo che il raffreddamento del gas avvenga tramite radiazione di corpo nero. Troviamo una significativa variabilità nelle SED, specialmente alle alte energie, che si traduce in curve di luce che mostrano modulazioni distintive di un fattore ~ 2 in ottico e ~10 in UV e raggi X. Analizziamo in dettaglio la variabilità del flusso nelle bande ottiche che saranno osservate dal Vera Rubin Observatory (VRO). Considerando il limite di flusso del VRO e la durata nominale del survey, troviamo che binarie con masse diverse e/o eccentriche possono essere identificate fino a z ~ 0.5. Un aspetto critico spesso trascurato negli studi precedenti è il ruolo della pressione di radiazione nell’evoluzione idrodinamica del disco. A scale di sub-parsec, i dischi attorno ai MBHB sono probabilmente dominati dalla pressione di radiazione; pertanto, includere questo termine aggiuntivo nelle equazioni idrodinamiche è fondamentale per una modellizzazione migliore dell’interazione MBHB-disco. Implementiamo il contributo della pressione di radiazione nelle nostre simulazioni numeriche 3D, al fine di valutarne l’impatto sia sull’evoluzione della binaria sia sul disco e sui segnali EM. Troviamo che la pressione di radiazione altera la struttura verticale e termica del disco, risultando in una configurazione geometricamente più sottile e più fredda. Ciò porta a un tasso di accrescimento ridotto sulla binaria e sopprime la crescita dell’eccentricità della cavità e la precessione nelle binarie circolari a masse uguali. L’emissione dai mini-dischi si sposta dall’ottico verso le frequenze UV con una luminosità di picco maggiore di ordini di grandezza. Anche la variabilità temporale è influenzata: i flussi in UV vicino e soft-X sono più alti e più variabili. La pressione di radiazione sopprime la caratteristica formazione del “lump” nei sistemi circolari a masse uguali. ​

Cocchiararo, F (2026). Characterisation of the electromagnetic emission and dynamical evolution of Massive Black Hole Binaries. (Tesi di dottorato, , 2026).

Characterisation of the electromagnetic emission and dynamical evolution of Massive Black Hole Binaries

COCCHIARARO, FABIOLA
2026

Abstract

Observational evidence has confirmed the presence of a massive black hole at the centre of most galaxies. Massive black holes (MBH) are compact objects with mass between 10^6 and 10^10 Msun. During their evolution, galaxies can merge and their respective black holes can bond in a massive black hole binary (MBHB). The stages through which the binary can efficiently shrink and coalesce are currently under debate. As a result of the interaction with the gaseous environment in which they reside, MBHBs are expected to produce distinctive observational electromagnetic (EM) signatures. Although known candidates at sub-parsec separation have been proposed based on their EM emission, convincing evidence that these sources are indeed MBHBs is still missing. MBHBs are among the main targets of current and future gravitational wave (GW) experiments. The upcoming space-based Laser Interferometer Space Antenna will probe the milli-hertz GW band, observing the late inspiral and merger of MBHBs with masses between 10^4-10^7 Msun, across the Universe. At lower frequencies, in the nano-hertz regime, Pulsar Timing Array experiments can detect GWs from more massive MBHBs at milli-parsec separations. Although GWs are essential for a definitive detection of MBHBs, identifying unique EM counterparts is crucial for constraining the properties of these systems, opening the era of low-frequency multi-messenger astronomy. In this thesis, we investigate the dynamics, the spectral and time variability of accreting MBHBs at milli-parsec separations, focusing on the interplay between the binary and its gaseous circumbinary disc. We present the first synthetic spectral energy distributions (SEDs) and Light Curves (LCs) from 3D hyper-Lagrangian hydrodynamical simulations of MBHBs surrounded by circumbinary discs. Using the 3D code GIZMO in its meshless finite mass version, we simulate live milli-parsec binaries with total mass 10^6 Msun, exploring different mass ratios and eccentricities. We let these binaries evolve within a circumbinary disc described by an adiabatic equation of state, including the disc self-gravity and assuming gas cooling to occur via black body radiation. We find significant variability of the SED, especially at high energies, which translates into LCs displaying distinctive modulations of a factor of ~ 2 in the optical and of ~ 10 in UV and X-rays. We analyse in detail the flux variability in the optical bands that will be probed by the Vera Rubin Observatory (VRO). When considering the VRO flux limit and nominal survey duration, we find that unequal-mass and/or eccentric binaries can be singled out up to z ~ 0.5. A critical aspect that has often been neglected in previous studies is the role of radiation pressure in the hydrodynamics evolution of the circumbinary disc. At sub-parsec scales, discs around MBHBs are likely dominated by radiation pressure; therefore, including this additional term in the hydrodynamics equations is very important in order to advance the theoretical modelling of the MBHB-disc interaction. We implement the contribution of the radiation pressure in our 3D numerical simulations, in order to evaluate its impact on both the evolution of the binary and its circumbinary disc and the EM signatures. We find that the radiation pressure significantly alters the vertical and thermal structure of the disc, resulting in a geometrically thinner and colder configuration. This leads to a reduced accretion rate onto the binary and suppresses cavity eccentricity growth and precession in circular equal mass binaries. The emission from the mini-discs shifts from the optical towards UV frequencies and with a peak luminosity orders of magnitude higher. Temporal variability is affected as well: near UV and soft-X ray fluxes are higher and more variable. Crucially, radiation pressure suppresses the characteristic "lump" formation in equal-mass circular systems.
GEROSA, DAVIDE
SESANA, ALBERTO
Buchi neri massicci; Binaria; Accrescimento; Metodo numerico; Idrodinamica
Massive Black Hole; Binary; Accretion; Numerical method; Hydrodynamics
English
19-feb-2026
38
2024/2025
open
Cocchiararo, F (2026). Characterisation of the electromagnetic emission and dynamical evolution of Massive Black Hole Binaries. (Tesi di dottorato, , 2026).
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Utilizza questo identificativo per citare o creare un link a questo documento: https://hdl.handle.net/10281/610743
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