Microglia, the resident immune cells of the central nervous system, are essential regulators of brain development, homeostasis, and pathology. Murine studies have defined microglial ontogeny as originating from yolk sac erythro-myeloid progenitors and specified within the neural environment; however, the human-specific mechanisms orchestrating microglial maturation remain poorly understood due to limited access to primary fetal tissue tissues. In this work, we combined complementary in vivo and in vitro approaches to investigate the molecular and environmental factors driving human microglia development. We first established a novel Neuroimmune Assembloid (NIA) system by integrating hESC-derived microglial progenitors into early-stage brain organoids. Within one week after integration, microglia acquired IBA1 expression and displayed homogeneous distribution throughout the organoid parenchyma. We confirmed their expansion depends on M-CSF and IL-34, and transcriptional profiling revealed that the 3D organoid environment promotes further maturation compared to monolayer culture, inducing gene programs related to neural tissue remodelling and homeostatic microglial identity. Leveraging this platform, we demonstrated that TGFB1 signalling promotes morphological and molecular maturation of human microglia, reducing CD206 expression and inducing a metabolic and transcriptional shift toward an immune-competent phenotype. To further dissect the contribution of TGFB1 signalling, we leveraged murine models to assess whether TGFB1 is necessary and sufficient to drive microglia specification. To this end, we established a novel mouse model with brain macrophages conditionally expressing a constitutive active form of TGFB Receptor 1 (TGFBR1). We observed that, in the meningeal region, TGFB signalling in border-associated macrophages failed to induce a full microglia-like phenotype, suggesting that parenchymal cues are also required for microglial specification and that TGFB1 is necessary but not sufficient to instruct microglia identity outside the CNS parenchyma. Complementing these experimental models, we characterized human fetal microglia using post-mortem tissue across gestational stages. We defined a spatiotemporal framework of microglial maturation showing progressive increases in cell density and morphological complexity paralleling cortical development. CD206 was identified as an early marker of human immature microglia whose expression declines with maturation from the mid-fetal stage onward. Integration with transcriptomic datasets revealed stage-specific expression of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) risk genes enriched for neurogenesis and apoptotic regulation, suggesting discrete developmental windows of vulnerability during microglial maturation. Together, these findings establish a comprehensive framework for understanding human microglial development. They demonstrate that TGFB1 is a key regulator of human microglial maturation and that the early-to-mid fetal period represents a critical transition phase in which microglia integrate intrinsic and environmental cues to coordinate neurodevelopmental processes and, possibly, to determine susceptibility to neurodevelopmental disorders.

La microglia, costituente la componente immunitaria residente del sistema nervoso centrale, svolge un ruolo cruciale nello sviluppo, nell’omeostasi e nella patologia cerebrale. Studi condotti su modelli murini hanno definito l’ontogenesi microgliale come derivante da progenitori eritromieloidi del sacco vitellino, che acquisiscono una specificità microgliale all’interno dell’ambiente neurale. Tuttavia, i meccanismi specifici che regolano la maturazione della microglia umana restano in gran parte sconosciuti, a causa dell’accesso limitato a tessuti fetali primari. In questo studio, abbiamo combinato approcci in vivo e in vitro complementari per indagare i fattori molecolari e ambientali che guidano lo sviluppo della microglia umana. Abbiamo sviluppato un innovativo sistema di Assembloide Neuroimmune (NIA) integrando progenitori microgliali derivati da cellule staminali embrionali umane (hESC) in organoidi cerebrali in fase precoce. Dopo una settimana dall’integrazione, le cellule microgliali hanno acquisito l’espressione di IBA1 e mostrato una distribuzione omogenea all’interno del parenchima dell’organoide. Abbiamo dimostrato che la loro espansione dipende da M-CSF e IL-34, e l’analisi trascrittomica ha rivelato che l’ambiente tridimensionale dell’organoide promuove una maturazione più avanzata rispetto alla coltura bidimensionale, inducendo programmi genici legati al rimodellamento del tessuto neurale e all’identità microgliale omeostatica. Utilizzando questa piattaforma, abbiamo mostrato che la segnalazione mediata da TGFb1 favorisce la maturazione morfologica e molecolare della microglia umana, riducendo l’espressione di CD206 e inducendo un rimodellamento metabolico e trascrizionale verso un fenotipo immunocompetente. Per approfondire il contributo della via di segnalazione TGFB1, abbiamo impiegato modelli murini al fine di verificare se sia necessaria e sufficiente per guidare la specificazione microgliale. A tal fine, abbiamo generato un nuovo modello murino in cui i macrofagi cerebrali esprimono in modo condizionale una forma costitutivamente attiva del recettore TGFBR1. Abbiamo osservato che, nelle meningi, la segnalazione TGFB nelle cellule macrofagiche delle meningi non è sufficiente a indurre un fenotipo completamente microgliale, suggerendo che anche segnali provenienti dal parenchima cerebrale siano indispensabili. Questi risultati indicano che il TGFB è necessario ma non sufficiente per istruire l’identità microgliale al di fuori del parenchima del SNC. In parallelo, abbiamo caratterizzato la microglia fetale umana utilizzando tessuti post-mortem raccolti in diverse fasi gestazionali. Abbiamo definito un quadro spazio-temporale della maturazione microgliale, evidenziando un aumento progressivo della densità cellulare e della complessità morfologica in parallelo con lo sviluppo corticale. CD206 è stato identificato come un marcatore precoce della microglia immatura, la cui espressione diminuisce con la maturazione a partire dalla fase fetale intermedia. L’integrazione con dataset trascrittomici ha rivelato un’espressione stadio-specifica di geni associati al rischio di disturbi dello spettro autistico (ASD), arricchiti per funzioni legate alla neurogenesi e alla regolazione apoptotica, definendo la transizione dalla fase fetale precoce a quella intermedia come potenziale vulnerabilità durante la maturazione microgliale. Complessivamente, questi risultati delineano un quadro integrato dello sviluppo microgliale umano, identificando TGFβ1 come regolatore chiave della maturazione e individuando il periodo fetale precoce-intermedio come una fase critica di transizione, in cui la microglia integra segnali intrinseci e ambientali per coordinare i processi di neurosviluppo e potenzialmente determinando la suscettibilità a disturbi del neurosviluppo.

Cascio, A (2026). Decoding Human Microglial Development through Integrative Analysis of Brain Organoids, Mouse Models and Primary Fetal Tissue. (Tesi di dottorato, , 2026).

Decoding Human Microglial Development through Integrative Analysis of Brain Organoids, Mouse Models and Primary Fetal Tissue

CASCIO, ANNA
2026

Abstract

Microglia, the resident immune cells of the central nervous system, are essential regulators of brain development, homeostasis, and pathology. Murine studies have defined microglial ontogeny as originating from yolk sac erythro-myeloid progenitors and specified within the neural environment; however, the human-specific mechanisms orchestrating microglial maturation remain poorly understood due to limited access to primary fetal tissue tissues. In this work, we combined complementary in vivo and in vitro approaches to investigate the molecular and environmental factors driving human microglia development. We first established a novel Neuroimmune Assembloid (NIA) system by integrating hESC-derived microglial progenitors into early-stage brain organoids. Within one week after integration, microglia acquired IBA1 expression and displayed homogeneous distribution throughout the organoid parenchyma. We confirmed their expansion depends on M-CSF and IL-34, and transcriptional profiling revealed that the 3D organoid environment promotes further maturation compared to monolayer culture, inducing gene programs related to neural tissue remodelling and homeostatic microglial identity. Leveraging this platform, we demonstrated that TGFB1 signalling promotes morphological and molecular maturation of human microglia, reducing CD206 expression and inducing a metabolic and transcriptional shift toward an immune-competent phenotype. To further dissect the contribution of TGFB1 signalling, we leveraged murine models to assess whether TGFB1 is necessary and sufficient to drive microglia specification. To this end, we established a novel mouse model with brain macrophages conditionally expressing a constitutive active form of TGFB Receptor 1 (TGFBR1). We observed that, in the meningeal region, TGFB signalling in border-associated macrophages failed to induce a full microglia-like phenotype, suggesting that parenchymal cues are also required for microglial specification and that TGFB1 is necessary but not sufficient to instruct microglia identity outside the CNS parenchyma. Complementing these experimental models, we characterized human fetal microglia using post-mortem tissue across gestational stages. We defined a spatiotemporal framework of microglial maturation showing progressive increases in cell density and morphological complexity paralleling cortical development. CD206 was identified as an early marker of human immature microglia whose expression declines with maturation from the mid-fetal stage onward. Integration with transcriptomic datasets revealed stage-specific expression of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) risk genes enriched for neurogenesis and apoptotic regulation, suggesting discrete developmental windows of vulnerability during microglial maturation. Together, these findings establish a comprehensive framework for understanding human microglial development. They demonstrate that TGFB1 is a key regulator of human microglial maturation and that the early-to-mid fetal period represents a critical transition phase in which microglia integrate intrinsic and environmental cues to coordinate neurodevelopmental processes and, possibly, to determine susceptibility to neurodevelopmental disorders.
NICOLIS, SILVIA KIRSTEN
KRENN, VERONICA
Microglia; Neurosviluppo umano; Organoidi cerebrali; Cervello fetale; Modelli murini
Microglia; Neurodevelopment; Brain organoids; Fetal brain; Mouse models
English
16-feb-2026
38
2024/2025
embargoed_20290216
Cascio, A (2026). Decoding Human Microglial Development through Integrative Analysis of Brain Organoids, Mouse Models and Primary Fetal Tissue. (Tesi di dottorato, , 2026).
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Descrizione: Decoding Human Microglial Development through Integrative Analysis of Brain Organoids, Mouse Models and Primary Fetal Tissue
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Utilizza questo identificativo per citare o creare un link a questo documento: https://hdl.handle.net/10281/610667
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