This thesis aimed to extend a colloidal procedure to synthesize CsPbBr3 nanocrystals to hybrid APbX3 perovskites for photovoltaics. The attractiveness of the synthetic protocol lies in its scalability and circularity, as solvents and excess reactants are recoverable and can be reused reliably. Besides that, the possibility to decouple the synthesis of the material and its deposition as the active layer in a device offers advantages in terms of obtaining a material with controlled and reproducible quality and in the tuning of its dispersion properties, which paves the way for large-area deposition methods, normally not compatible with traditional in situ growth techniques. Two main research lines were traced: the first explored the adjustment needed on the original colloidal approach to target perovskites nanocrystals that are more challenging in terms of thermodynamic instability or phase selectivity (depending on kinetical aspects; the second extended our understanding of CsPbBr3 nanocrystals to populate the their capping agents library, both at the synthetic and post-synthetic levels, something that may turn beneficial for APbX3 phases and for the applicative integration of the material in the final device. Regarding the first research line, we started by varying the halide, replacing Br with I. The unfavorable thermodynamics of the emissive polymorph led us to adjust the reaction environment, allowing for the kinetic formation of the metastable active polymorph and its stabilization with an appropriate ligand shell. Given its readiness to convert to the inactive polymorph, however, especially in the solid state, we found that purification steps (meant to remove species that potentially catalyze the transition) and storage in dispersion, eventually with additional stabilizing additives, extend the shelf life of such nanocrystals. The replacement of Cs with a small organic cation, on the other hand, mainly brought us to face very slow kinetics of growth, leading to issues of phase selectivity and coarseness of particles. This required, in general, the concentration of the reaction environment and the rebalancing of stoichiometry between the constituent ions, and the amount of capping agents. In particular, when working with formamidinium-based perovskites, given their high tendency to crystallize with reduced dimensionality (with unsuitable optical properties for our purposes), we had to further tune the reaction temperature and the polarity of the reaction environment to obtain selectively an uncontaminated and dispersible 3D phase. With our synthetic adjustment hybrid nanocrystals resulted in yielding uniform films with a good tolerance towards common post-processings (i.e., thermal annealing and solvent washing) even in a laboratory atmosphere, with essentially no variation in their original crystallographic structure. Lastly, we studied the implications on kinetics, and therefore phase selectivity, of new ligands for CsPbBr3, finding out that, if the capping agents do not modify significantly the nature of coordination with the precursors (and, therefore, their realease), nanocrystals with comparable quality can be obtained with shorter capping agents with a less insulating character (which is fundamental for their applicability in indoor photovoltaics, where our previous experience marked the detrimental effects of charge accumulation due to non-cunductive, ligand-rich domains). With CsPbBr3 we also optimized the deposition method to obtain dense, homogeneous films, possibly with a reduced ligand content (descending either from washing or from the exchange with alternative ligands, selected on the basis of preliminary in-dispersion tests). The possibility of tuning the formation of a passivating layer of CsPb2Br5 through our film post-treatments was the subject of an in-depth morphological and structural study, as well as of the advantageous resonance this secondary phase had on the carrier dynamics.
Questa tesi si è proposta di estendere una procedura colloidale per la sintesi di nanocristalli di CsPbBr₃ a perovskiti ibride APbX₃ destinate all’applicazione fotovoltaica. L’attrattiva di tale protocollo sintetico risiede nella sua scalabilità e circolarità, poiché i solventi e i reagenti in eccesso sono recuperabili e riutilizzabili. Inoltre, la possibilità di disaccoppiare la sintesi del materiale dalla deposizione in film come strato attivo in dispositivo offre vantaggi sia in termini di controllo e riproducibilità, sia nella modulazione delle proprietà in dispersione, aprendo così la strada a deposizione su larga area, normalmente non compatibili con le tradizionali tecniche di crescita in situ. Sono state delineate due principali linee di ricerca: l’adattamento dell’approccio colloidale originale a nanocristalli più problematici per stabilità termodinamica o per selettività di fase; l’ampliamento della comprensione dei nanocristalli di CsPbBr₃ al fine di arricchire la libreria dei loro agenti di capping, sia a livello sintetico che post-sintetico, a vantaggio anche delle fasi APbX₃ e dell’integrazione in dispositivo. Per quanto riguarda la prima linea di ricerca, si è iniziato variando l’alogenuro. La termodinamica sfavorevole ha richiesto la modifica dell’ambiente di reazione, per ottenere il polimorfo attivo (metastabile) in regime cinetico. Tuttavia, data la tendenza del materiale a convertirsi nel polimorfo inattivo, soprattutto allo stato solido, abbiamo riscontrato che sia la purificazione (volta a rimuovere specie che potrebbero catalizzare la transizione) che la conservazione in dispersione, eventualmente con l’aggiunta di additivi stabilizzanti, prolungano significativamente la vita utile di tali nanocristalli. La sostituzione del Cs con un piccolo catione organico, invece, ci ha posto principalmente di fronte a cinetiche di crescita molto lente, che hanno comportato problemi di selettività di fase e di grossolanità delle particelle. Ciò ha reso necessario, in generale, riequilibrare la stechiometria tra gli ioni costituenti e la quantità di agenti di capping. In particolare, con perovskiti a base di formamidinio, data la loro elevata tendenza a cristallizzare con dimensionalità ridotta (e quindi con proprietà ottiche non idonee ai nostri scopi), si è reso necessario agire anche sulla temperatura di reazione e sulla polarità dell’ambiente per ottenere selettivamente una fase 3D pura e disperdibile. Con i nostri adattamenti sintetici, i nanocristalli ibridi hanno prodotto film uniformi, con buona tolleranza ai comuni trattamenti post-sintetici (termici e lavaggi con solvente), anche all’aria, senza variazioni sostanziali della loro struttura cristallografica originale. Infine, abbiamo studiato le implicazioni cinetiche — e quindi la selettività di fase — derivanti dall’impiego di nuovi leganti per CsPbBr₃. Se i leganti non modificano in modo significativo la natura della coordinazione con i precursori (e quindi il loro rilascio), è possibile ottenere nanocristalli di qualità comparabile utilizzando leganti più corti e meno isolanti (aspetto fondamentale per l’applicabilità nel fotovoltaico indooe, dove la nostra precedente esperienza aveva evidenziato gli effetti deleteri dell’accumulo di carica dovuto a domini ricchi di legante e poco conduttivi). Con CsPbBr₃ abbiamo inoltre ottimizzato il metodo di deposizione per ottenere film densi e omogenei, eventualmente con un contenuto ridotto di legante (ottenuto sia tramite lavaggio sia tramite scambio con leganti alternativi, selezionati sulla base di test preliminari in dispersione). La possibilità di modulare, attraverso trattamenti post-deposizione, la formazione di uno strato passivante di CsPb₂Br₅ è stata oggetto di uno studio morfologico e strutturale approfondito; si sono valutati inoltre gli effetti benefici che ciò esercita sulla dinamica dei portatori di carica.
Fappani, A (2026). COLLOIDAL PEROVSKITES TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE AND COMMERCIALIZABLE PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING. (Tesi di dottorato, , 2026).
COLLOIDAL PEROVSKITES TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE AND COMMERCIALIZABLE PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING
FAPPANI, ALICE
2026
Abstract
This thesis aimed to extend a colloidal procedure to synthesize CsPbBr3 nanocrystals to hybrid APbX3 perovskites for photovoltaics. The attractiveness of the synthetic protocol lies in its scalability and circularity, as solvents and excess reactants are recoverable and can be reused reliably. Besides that, the possibility to decouple the synthesis of the material and its deposition as the active layer in a device offers advantages in terms of obtaining a material with controlled and reproducible quality and in the tuning of its dispersion properties, which paves the way for large-area deposition methods, normally not compatible with traditional in situ growth techniques. Two main research lines were traced: the first explored the adjustment needed on the original colloidal approach to target perovskites nanocrystals that are more challenging in terms of thermodynamic instability or phase selectivity (depending on kinetical aspects; the second extended our understanding of CsPbBr3 nanocrystals to populate the their capping agents library, both at the synthetic and post-synthetic levels, something that may turn beneficial for APbX3 phases and for the applicative integration of the material in the final device. Regarding the first research line, we started by varying the halide, replacing Br with I. The unfavorable thermodynamics of the emissive polymorph led us to adjust the reaction environment, allowing for the kinetic formation of the metastable active polymorph and its stabilization with an appropriate ligand shell. Given its readiness to convert to the inactive polymorph, however, especially in the solid state, we found that purification steps (meant to remove species that potentially catalyze the transition) and storage in dispersion, eventually with additional stabilizing additives, extend the shelf life of such nanocrystals. The replacement of Cs with a small organic cation, on the other hand, mainly brought us to face very slow kinetics of growth, leading to issues of phase selectivity and coarseness of particles. This required, in general, the concentration of the reaction environment and the rebalancing of stoichiometry between the constituent ions, and the amount of capping agents. In particular, when working with formamidinium-based perovskites, given their high tendency to crystallize with reduced dimensionality (with unsuitable optical properties for our purposes), we had to further tune the reaction temperature and the polarity of the reaction environment to obtain selectively an uncontaminated and dispersible 3D phase. With our synthetic adjustment hybrid nanocrystals resulted in yielding uniform films with a good tolerance towards common post-processings (i.e., thermal annealing and solvent washing) even in a laboratory atmosphere, with essentially no variation in their original crystallographic structure. Lastly, we studied the implications on kinetics, and therefore phase selectivity, of new ligands for CsPbBr3, finding out that, if the capping agents do not modify significantly the nature of coordination with the precursors (and, therefore, their realease), nanocrystals with comparable quality can be obtained with shorter capping agents with a less insulating character (which is fundamental for their applicability in indoor photovoltaics, where our previous experience marked the detrimental effects of charge accumulation due to non-cunductive, ligand-rich domains). With CsPbBr3 we also optimized the deposition method to obtain dense, homogeneous films, possibly with a reduced ligand content (descending either from washing or from the exchange with alternative ligands, selected on the basis of preliminary in-dispersion tests). The possibility of tuning the formation of a passivating layer of CsPb2Br5 through our film post-treatments was the subject of an in-depth morphological and structural study, as well as of the advantageous resonance this secondary phase had on the carrier dynamics.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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phd_unimib_816334.pdf
embargo fino al 24/02/2029
Descrizione: COLLOIDAL PEROVSKITES TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE AND COMMERCIALIZABLE PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING
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Doctoral thesis
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