Decisions about health-related behaviours often involve considering multiple risk factors at the same time. Making such decisions is not easy, and it gets even more complex if we take into account the fact that often, risk factors do not just add up, but they interact with each other and potentiate each other’s harmful effects. When hazards interact in this way, leading to an overall risk that is greater than the sum of risks presented by each hazard separately, they are called synergistic risks. Over the years, medical studies identified synergistic risks for different health outcomes. Many of the confirmed synergistic risks are related to non-communicable diseases, such as smoking and alcohol for head and neck cancers, or smoking and diabetes or high blood cholesterol for cardiovascular disease. Some synergistic risks have also been identified in the domain of mental health. Road accidents are another adverse health outcome impacted by a synergistic risk – that of very young age and alcohol consumption. Accurate judgements of such synergistic risks are important. If people underestimate how different factors interact, they may fail to take the right actions to mitigate risks. On the other hand, even overestimating synergies may be harmful. Some previous scientific literature has addressed people’s perceptions of synergistic risks, but the attention devoted to this issue has been limited. The existing empirical evidence suggests that people tend to judge synergistic health risks as sub-additive or additive, which can be interpreted as underestimation. Therefore, there is a need to develop and test interventions that help people better understand these risks and make more accurate judgements. However, even less research has been devoted to this issue. That is why I decided to dedicate my PhD research project to a systematic investigation of people’s perceptions of synergistic health risks and ways of improving their accuracy. We started by a critical analysis of the existing literature, which is the content of Chapter 1 of my PhD thesis. We identified only around 20 peer-reviewed articles dedicated to perceptions of synergistic risks, which we analysed in great detail, identifying the critical points to be tackled by future research. One of the main issues that emerged from this review was a lack of agreement on the most suitable way to measure perceptions of synergistic risks. Therefore, our first experimental study (described in Chapter 2) focused mostly on methodological issues. This study also examined judgements about three different synergistic risks. We found important differences in how people judged these risks. This led us to design a follow-up study that aimed to disentangle which characteristics of health outcomes were driving our results. To avoid basing our conclusions solely on answers from a student sample, we ran the same study with a sample of adults. Results from both studies are described in Chapter 3 and show that what matters the most is the temporal delay of the health outcome. Specifically, we found evidence that people struggle to perceive synergies in situations when the effects of risk factors accumulate over time and have harmful consequences at some point in the future, compared to situations in which risk factors create immediate harm. Moreover, the two studies also shed light on why this may be the case. The second part of my PhD project focused on possible solutions to increase accuracy of judgements about synergistic health risks. Chapter 4 presents two studies in which we experimentally tested communication about synergistic health risks. The findings from our experimental studies are limited, but nevertheless useful to understand the potential impacts of different communication strategies, thus being of interest not only for scholars, but also healthcare practitioners or policy-makers.
Le decisioni sui comportamenti legati alla salute spesso comportano la considerazione di molteplici fattori di rischio. Prendere tali decisioni non è facile, e diventa ancora più complesso considerando che spesso i fattori di rischio non si sommano, ma interagiscono, potenziando gli effetti nocivi l'uno dell'altro. Quando i fattori di rischio interagiscono così, portando a un rischio maggiore della somma dei rischi presentati da ciascuno di loro, vengono chiamati rischi sinergici. Gli studi medici hanno identificato diversi rischi sinergici per la salute. Molti sono legati a malattie non trasmissibili, come il fumo e l'alcol per i tumori della testa e del collo, o il fumo e il diabete o il colesterolo per le malattie cardiovascolari. I rischi sinergici sono stati identificati anche per la salute mentale. Gli incidenti stradali sono un altro esito negativo influenzato da un rischio sinergico – quello della giovane età e del consumo di alcol. Giudizi accurati sui rischi sinergici sono importanti. Se le persone sottovalutano le interazioni tra diversi fattori, potrebbero non prendere le giuste misure per mitigare i rischi. D'altra parte, anche una sovrastima delle sinergie può essere dannosa. Alcuni studi scientifici hanno trattato le percezioni dei rischi sinergici per la salute, ma l'attenzione dedicata a questo tema è stata limitata. Le ricerche esistenti suggeriscono che le persone tendono a giudicare questi rischi come sub-additivi o additivi, il che può essere interpretato come una sottovalutazione. C'è dunque la necessità di sviluppare e testare interventi che aiutino a comprendere meglio questi rischi e a formulare giudizi più accurati. Ci sono ancora meno ricerche su questo tema. È per questo motivo che ho deciso di dedicare il mio progetto di dottorato allo studio sistematico delle percezioni dei rischi sinergici per la salute e dei modi per migliorarne l’accuratezza. Abbiamo iniziato con un'analisi critica della letteratura esistente, che costituisce il contenuto del Capitolo 1 della mia tesi di dottorato. Abbiamo identificato solo circa 20 articoli scientifici dedicati alle percezioni dei rischi sinergici, che abbiamo analizzato in dettaglio, identificando i punti critici da essere affrontati nel futuro. Uno dei principali problemi emersi è stata la mancanza di consenso sul modo più adatto per misurare le percezioni dei rischi sinergici. Pertanto, il nostro primo studio sperimentale (descritto nel Capitolo 2) si è concentrato principalmente su questioni metodologiche. Questo studio ha anche esaminato i giudizi su tre rischi sinergici diversi. Abbiamo riscontrato importanti differenze nel modo in cui le persone giudicavano questi rischi. Questo ci ha portato a progettare un’altro studio per capire quali fattori stessero influenzando i nostri risultati. Per evitare di basare le nostre conclusioni esclusivamente sulle risposte degli studenti, abbiamo condotto lo stesso studio con un campione di adulti. I risultati di entrambi gli studi sono descritti nel Capitolo 3 e mostrano che ciò che conta di più è quando avviene il problema di salute. In particolare, abbiamo trovato che le persone hanno difficoltà a percepire le sinergie in situazioni in cui gli effetti dei fattori di rischio si accumulano nel tempo e hanno conseguenze dannose in futuro, rispetto alle situazioni in cui i fattori di rischio causano danni immediati. Inoltre, i due studi aiutano a capire perché ciò potrebbe accadere. La seconda parte del mio progetto si è concentrata su possibili soluzioni per aumentare l'accuratezza dei giudizi sui rischi sinergici per la salute. Il Capitolo 4 presenta due studi in cui abbiamo testato la comunicazione sui rischi sinergici per la salute. I risultati sono limitati, ma comunque utili per comprendere il potenziale impatto di diverse strategie di comunicazione, essendo di interesse non solo per i ricercatori, ma anche per i professionisti sanitari o funzionari pubblici.
(2025). Judgements about synergistic risks: measurement, understanding and strategies to increase accuracy. (Tesi di dottorato, , 2025).
Judgements about synergistic risks: measurement, understanding and strategies to increase accuracy
BARJAKOVÁ, MARTINA
2025
Abstract
Decisions about health-related behaviours often involve considering multiple risk factors at the same time. Making such decisions is not easy, and it gets even more complex if we take into account the fact that often, risk factors do not just add up, but they interact with each other and potentiate each other’s harmful effects. When hazards interact in this way, leading to an overall risk that is greater than the sum of risks presented by each hazard separately, they are called synergistic risks. Over the years, medical studies identified synergistic risks for different health outcomes. Many of the confirmed synergistic risks are related to non-communicable diseases, such as smoking and alcohol for head and neck cancers, or smoking and diabetes or high blood cholesterol for cardiovascular disease. Some synergistic risks have also been identified in the domain of mental health. Road accidents are another adverse health outcome impacted by a synergistic risk – that of very young age and alcohol consumption. Accurate judgements of such synergistic risks are important. If people underestimate how different factors interact, they may fail to take the right actions to mitigate risks. On the other hand, even overestimating synergies may be harmful. Some previous scientific literature has addressed people’s perceptions of synergistic risks, but the attention devoted to this issue has been limited. The existing empirical evidence suggests that people tend to judge synergistic health risks as sub-additive or additive, which can be interpreted as underestimation. Therefore, there is a need to develop and test interventions that help people better understand these risks and make more accurate judgements. However, even less research has been devoted to this issue. That is why I decided to dedicate my PhD research project to a systematic investigation of people’s perceptions of synergistic health risks and ways of improving their accuracy. We started by a critical analysis of the existing literature, which is the content of Chapter 1 of my PhD thesis. We identified only around 20 peer-reviewed articles dedicated to perceptions of synergistic risks, which we analysed in great detail, identifying the critical points to be tackled by future research. One of the main issues that emerged from this review was a lack of agreement on the most suitable way to measure perceptions of synergistic risks. Therefore, our first experimental study (described in Chapter 2) focused mostly on methodological issues. This study also examined judgements about three different synergistic risks. We found important differences in how people judged these risks. This led us to design a follow-up study that aimed to disentangle which characteristics of health outcomes were driving our results. To avoid basing our conclusions solely on answers from a student sample, we ran the same study with a sample of adults. Results from both studies are described in Chapter 3 and show that what matters the most is the temporal delay of the health outcome. Specifically, we found evidence that people struggle to perceive synergies in situations when the effects of risk factors accumulate over time and have harmful consequences at some point in the future, compared to situations in which risk factors create immediate harm. Moreover, the two studies also shed light on why this may be the case. The second part of my PhD project focused on possible solutions to increase accuracy of judgements about synergistic health risks. Chapter 4 presents two studies in which we experimentally tested communication about synergistic health risks. The findings from our experimental studies are limited, but nevertheless useful to understand the potential impacts of different communication strategies, thus being of interest not only for scholars, but also healthcare practitioners or policy-makers.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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Descrizione: Tesi di Barjaková Martina - 888818
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